Official websites use. gov A. gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Corresponding Author: a,b Caroline N. Harada, M. University of 28 Yas Amcık Canlı at Birmingham, Division of Gerontology, Geriatrics, and Palliative Care, CH, Second Ave S. c Marissa C. Natelson Love, M. d Kristen Triebel, Psy. The number of Americans over the age of 65 is projected to more than double in the next forty years, increasing from Although dementia and mild cognitive impairment are both common, even those who do not experience these conditions may experience subtle cognitive changes associated with aging. In this paper, we first describe the neurocognitive changes observed in normal aging. This is followed by a description of the structural and functional alterations seen in aging brains that may explain observed cognitive changes. We will then discuss some of the practical implications of normal cognitive aging. We will conclude with a discussion of what is known about factors that may mitigate age-associated cognitive decline. Before discussing normal age-related changes, it is necessary to mention a few common methodological challenges that plague the study of normal brain aging. As 28 Yas Amcık Canlı all studies of aging, selection bias is a challenge- many potential study participants decline enrollment because they are either too healthy and busy or too ill. Because results can be generated more quickly, most studies rely on cross-sectional design, comparing subjects from different age groups. These cohorts may differ greatly in terms of culture, lifestyle, education, and requirements for success in life. Subjects from one age cohort may perform very poorly on any given cognitive or neurological test compared to subjects from a different age cohort irrespective of cognitive capacity, simply because of vastly different life experiences and skill sets. Longitudinal studies are likely better, but these studies also are subject to bias. Study populations will undergo attrition over time, and since those subjects who are most likely to remain in the study tend to be the healthiest, best educated, wealthiest, and have the highest scores on cognitive tests at baseline, the study findings may cease to represent the original study group. This is a concerning problem because dementia onset tends to be insidious, and early symptoms can be easily missed. Cognitive change as a normal process of aging has been well documented in the scientific literature. Some cognitive abilities, such as vocabulary, are resilient to brain aging and may even improve with age. Other abilities, such as conceptual reasoning, memory, and processing speed, decline gradually over time. There is significant heterogeneity among older adults in the rate of decline in some abilities, such as measures of perceptual reasoning and processing speed. Interested readers are directed to other sources for a more comprehensive review of this topic. Concepts of crystallized and fluid intelligence are used to describe patterns of cognitive change over the lifespan. Crystallized intelligence refers to skills, ability, and knowledge that is overlearned, well-practiced, and familiar. Crystallized abilities remain stable or gradually improve at a rate of 0. In contrast, fluid intelligence refers to abilities involving problem-solving and reasoning about things that are less familiar and are independent of what one has learned. Cognitive ability can be divided into specific cognitive domains. Processing speed refers to the speed with which cognitive activities are performed as well as the speed of motor responses. This fluid ability begins to decline in the third decade of life and continues throughout the lifespan. Thus, a decline in processing speed can have implications across a variety of cognitive domains. Attention refers to the ability to concentrate and focus on specific stimuli. Simple auditory attention span also known as immediate memory as measured by repetition of a string of digits shows only a slight decline in late life. Selective attention is important for tasks such as engaging in a conversation in a noisy environment or driving a car. Divided attention is the ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously, such as talking on the phone while preparing a meal. Older adults also perform worse than younger adults on tasks involving working memory 17which refers to the ability to momentarily hold information in memory while simultaneously manipulating that information. For example, older adults may have difficulty ordering a string of letters and numbers in the correct alphanumerical sequence or calculating a tip on a restaurant 28 Yas Amcık Canlı.
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